Sect of Skhariya - Revision history

פטר חמור: /* 19th-century groups */

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‎19th-century groups

פטר חמור: /* Aftermath */

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‎Aftermath

פטר חמור: /* History */

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‎History

פטר חמור: /* Zacharias de Ghisolfi */

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‎Zacharias de Ghisolfi

פטר חמור: /* Zacharias de Ghisolfi */

2018-05-15T10:12:42Z

‎Zacharias de Ghisolfi

פטר חמור: /* Fate */

2018-05-15T10:00:35Z

‎Fate

פטר חמור at 09:59, 15 May 2018

2018-05-15T09:59:57Z

פטר חמור: /* Zacharias de Ghisolfi */

2018-05-15T09:51:17Z

‎Zacharias de Ghisolfi

פטר חמור: /* Persecution */

2018-05-15T09:48:54Z

‎Persecution

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2018-05-15T09:47:32Z

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{{about|the sect| the 15th century prince of the Taman peninsula, called Skariya the Jew by Ivan III of Muscovy|Zacharias de Ghisolfi}}

The '''Thought of Skhariya the Jew''', much more commonly known in the church terminology as the '''Heresy of the Judaizers''' or ''Zhidovstvuyushchiye'', was a religious concept that existed in [[Novgorod the Great]] and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] in the second half of the 15th century and marked the beginning of a new era of schism in Russia. Some scholars consider it to have developed from the earlier [[Strigolniki]] religious concept that also had developed in Novgorod in the 14th century. Initially popular among high-ranking statesmen and even the royal court, the concept was persecuted by [[hegumen]] [[Joseph Volotsky]] and [[Gennady (Archbishop of Novgorod)|Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod]].

==Terminology and beliefs==
The term ''Zhidovstvuyushchiye'' ({{lang|ru|Жидовствующие}}), as it is known in the sources, is derived from the Russian word жид (''zhid'', from Judea, an older Russian term for Jew which is now considered pejorative).<ref>Immonen, Visa. "The stratigraphy of a life: An archaeological dialogue with [[Leo Klejn]]." ''Archaeological Dialogues'' (2003), 10: 57-75, Cambridge University Press. For more on the origins of the word see Henrik Birnbaum. ''Essays in Early Slavic Civilization/Studien zur Fruhkultur der Slaven'' W. Fink, 1981. pp 26-36.</ref> ''Zhidovstvuyuschiye'' may be loosely translated as "those who follow Jewish traditions" or "those who think like Jews". [[Hegumen]] [[Joseph Volotsky]], the main critic and persecutor of this thought, considered the founder of this religious movement to be a certain Skhariya (a.k.a. Zakhariya, Skara; Russian: Схария, Захария, Скара). This was Zacharia ben Aharon ha-Cohen, a scholar from Kiev brought to Novgorod by [[Mikhailo Olelkovich]] from the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] in 1470. Zacharia translated a number of Hebrew texts on astronomy, logic and philosophy.<ref>Janet Martin, ''Medieval Russia'', p290</ref>

Their nickname arbitrarily presupposed their adherence to "[[Judaism]]", even though most of Skhariya's followers had been ordinary Russians of [[Russian Orthodox]] faith and low-ranking Orthodox [[clergy]] and had never confessed Judaism. Almost all we know about their religious beliefs is found in accounts left by their accusers. This makes it rather difficult to determine the exact beliefs of the adherents, since the aim of the accusers was to blacken the name of the "sect" and crush it. According to most accounts though, the ''Belief of Skhariya'' renounced the [[Holy Trinity]] and the divine status of [[Jesus]], [[monasticism]], [[ecclesiastic]] hierarchy, ceremonies, and [[immortality]] of soul. Some adherents even professed [[iconoclasm]]. The adherents also promoted the idea of "self-authority", or the self-determination of each individual in matters of faith and salvation. Priests Denis and Aleksei were considered ideologists of this heretical movement.

==History==
In the late 15th and early 16th century, this religious movement spread over Moscow. In 1480, even Grand Prince [[Ivan III]] himself invited a few prominent adherents to visit the city. The Grand Prince's seemingly strange behavior could be explained by the fact that he had sympathized with heretics’ ideas of [[secularization]] and the struggle against [[feudal]] division. Thus, the Judaizers enjoyed the support of high-ranking officials, statesmen, merchants, [[Yelena Stefanovna]] (wife of [[Ivan the Young]], heir to the throne) and Ivan's favorite [[deacon]] and diplomat [[Feodor Kuritsyn]]. The latter even decided to establish his own club in the mid-1480s.

Despite the growing popularity of this religious movement in Novgorod and Moscow, Ivan III was wary of the fact that it could irreversibly infiltrate broader masses of ordinary people and deprive him of ecclesiastic support in his foreign policy. Indeed, a denial of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ would destroy Christianity, while the adherents' opposition to the clergy and the secular authorities would have undermined the entire society. This made Ivan III renounce his ideas of secularization and ally with the clergy.<ref>On Ivan's policies regarding the sect, see George Vernadsky, "The Heresy of the Judaizers and the Policies of Ivan III of Moscow", ''Speculum'', Vol. 8, No. 4 (Oct., 1933): 436-454.</ref>

===Persecution===
The struggle against the adherents was led by hegumen [[Joseph Volotsky]] and his followers (иосифляне, ''iosiflyane'' or Josephinians) and [[Gennady (Archbishop of Novgorod)|Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod]].<ref>John I. L. Fennell, ''Ivan the Great of Moscow'' (London: Macmillan, 1961), 329; David M Goldfrank, "Burn, Baby, Burn: Popular Culture and Heresy in Late Medieval Russia", ''The Journal of Popular Culture'' 31, no. 4 (1998): 17–32; Andrei Pliguzov, "Archbishop Gennadii and the Heresy of the 'Judaizers'" ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 16(3/4) December 1992: 269-288.</ref> After uncovering adherents in Novgorod around 1487,<ref>Vernadsky, ''The Heresy of the Judaizers and the Policies of Ivan III'', 439.</ref> Gennady wrote a series of letters to other churchmen over several years calling on them to convene ''sobors'' ("church councils") with the aim "not to debate them, but to burn them." Such councils were held in 1488, 1490, 1494 and 1504. The councils outlawed religious and non-religious books and initiated their burning, sentenced a number of people to death, sent adherents into exile, and [[excommunicate]]d them. In 1491, Skhariya the Jew was executed in Novgorod by the order of Ivan III. More adherents were executed with Gennady's approval, including [[archimandrite]] Kassian of the Iuriev Monastery (who had allowed a number of adherents to hide there), Nekras Rukavov (they first tore out his tongue and then burnt him at the stake), a [[Pskov]]ian monk Zakhar and others.<ref>E. E. Golubinskii, ''Istoriia Russkoi Tserkvi'' (Moscow: University Typography, 1900), vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582.</ref>

By the end of the 15th century, some of the adherents remained under the protection of Yelena Stefanovna and her son [[Dmitry Ivanovich (grandson of Ivan III)|tsarevich Dmitry]] (grandson of Ivan III). However, in 1502 Dmitry was stripped of his title (transferred to [[Vasili III]] – son of Ivan III and [[Sophia Paleologue]]). As soon as Ivan III died in 1505, Yelena and Dmitry were arrested and imprisoned, leaving the adherents vulnerable to attacks from the authorities. In 1504, diak (secretary) Ivan-Volk Kuritsyn, Dmitry Konoplev and Ivan Maksimov were burnt at the stake.<ref>Golubinskii, Ist. Russk. ''Tserk'', vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582</ref> Other adherents were banished, imprisoned, or excommunicated. Feodor Kuritsyn's adherents' club ceased to exist.

==19th-century groups==
In the early 19th century, a number of communities appeared in [[Tula, Russia|Tula]], [[Voronezh]] and [[Tambov]], which followed Jewish traditions and [[halacha]]. They were also called ''zhidovstvuyuschiye'' and were persecuted severely in the times of [[Nicolas I]]. Since the beginning of the 20th century, they have been also called ''iudeystvuyuschie'', from ''iudeystvo'', a neutral term for the [[Jewish religion]]. Now they are generally considered a part of [[Jewish people]] (although with no real Israelite descent) and some of them have [[Aliyah|immigrated to Israel]]. These groups, however, are not linked to the teaching of Skhariya.

==See also==
{{portal|Christianity}}
*[[Judaizers]]
*[[Jewish Christians]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Eastern Orthodox independent churches]]
[[Category:Nontrinitarian denominations]]
[[Category:Christianity and Judaism]]
[[Category:Jewish Russian and Soviet history]]
[[Category:Novgorod Republic]]
[[Category:15th-century Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy in medieval Russia]]
[[Category:15th century in Russia]]

@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 Ivan's repeated invitations to Ghisolfi seem to indicate that he hoped the latter's services would be valuable to him in extending Russian influence on the [[Black Sea]]. Yet it is strange that during a period of more than eighteen years Ghisolfi did not succeed in reaching Russia. Whether the fact that Ghisolfi was a Jew had anything to do with the impediments put in his way, it is difficult to ascertain, for no mention of him is to be found in Jewish writings. The different spellings of Zachariah's name in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] documents—"Guizolfi," "Guigursis," and "Guilgursis"—may be attributed to errors of the Russian scribes.
-==19th-century groups==
+==19th-century Recrudescence==
-In the early 19th century, a number of communities appeared in [[Tula, Russia|Tula]], [[Voronezh]] and [[Tambov]], which followed Jewish traditions and [[halacha]]. They were also called ''zhidovstvuyuschiye'' and were persecuted severely in the times of [[Nicolas I]]. Since the beginning of the 20th century, they have been also called ''iudeystvuyuschie'', from ''iudeystvo'', a neutral term for the [[Jewish religion]]. Now they are generally considered a part of [[Jewish people]] (although with no real Israelite descent) and some of them have [[Aliyah|immigrated to Israel]].  These groups, however, are not linked to the teaching of Skhariya.
+In the early 19th century, a number of communities appeared in [[Tula, Russia|Tula]], [[Voronezh]] and [[Tambov]], which followed Jewish traditions and [[halacha]] who were called "Karimi" (Crimeans). They were also called ''zhidovstvuyuschiye'' after the Jidi people of Persian Jewish origins and were persecuted severely in the times of [[Nicolas I]]. Since the beginning of the 20th century, they have been also called ''iudeystvuyuschie'', from ''iudeystvo'', a neutral term for the [[Jewish religion]] but one holding more problems in Cannon law. Now they are generally considered a part of [[Jewish people]] (although with no real Israelite descent) and some of them have [[Aliyah|immigrated to Israel]].
 ==See also==

@@ Line 43: / Line 43: @@
 In 1502 Dmitry was stripped of his title (transferred to [[Vasili III]] &ndash; son of Ivan III and [[Sophia Paleologue]]). As soon as Ivan III died in 1505, Yelena and Dmitry were arrested and imprisoned, leaving the adherents vulnerable to attacks from the authorities. In 1504, diak (secretary) Ivan-Volk Kuritsyn, Dmitry Konoplev and Ivan Maksimov were burnt at the stake.<ref>Golubinskii, Ist. Russk. ''Tserk'', vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582</ref> Other adherents were banished, imprisoned, or excommunicated. Feodor Kuritsyn's adherents' club ceased to exist.
-The remnant of the Judaizers sought refuge in the Crimean Khanate for which they became known as Karimi.
+The remnant of the Judaizers sought refuge in the Crimean Khanate for which they became known as [[Karimi]].
 ===Analysis===

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 ==History==
 In the late 15th and early 16th century, this religious movement spread over Moscow. In 1480, even Grand Prince [[Ivan III]] himself invited a few prominent adherents to visit the city. The Grand Prince's seemingly strange behavior could be explained by the fact that he had sympathized with heretics’ ideas of [[secularization]] and the struggle against [[feudal]] division. Thus, the Judaizers enjoyed the support of high-ranking officials, statesmen, merchants, [[Yelena Stefanovna]] (wife of [[Ivan the Young]], heir to the throne) and Ivan's favorite [[deacon]] and diplomat [[Feodor Kuritsyn]]. The latter even decided to establish his own club in the mid-1480s.
 === Zacharias de Ghisolfi ===
@@ Line 28: / Line 26: @@
 ===The Sect of Zacharias Persecuted===
 The struggle against the adherents was led by hegumen [[Joseph Volotsky]] and his followers (иосифляне, ''iosiflyane'' or Josephinians) and [[Gennady (Archbishop of Novgorod)|Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod]].<ref>John I. L. Fennell, ''Ivan the Great of Moscow'' (London: Macmillan, 1961), 329; David M Goldfrank, "Burn, Baby, Burn: Popular Culture and Heresy in Late Medieval Russia", ''The Journal of Popular Culture'' 31, no. 4 (1998): 17–32; Andrei Pliguzov, "Archbishop Gennadii and the Heresy of the 'Judaizers'" ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 16(3/4) December 1992: 269-288.</ref> After uncovering adherents in Novgorod around 1487,<ref>Vernadsky, ''The Heresy of the Judaizers and the Policies of Ivan III'', 439.</ref> Gennady wrote a series of letters to other churchmen over several years calling on them to convene ''sobors'' ("church councils") with the aim "not to debate them, but to burn them."  Such councils were held in 1488, 1490, 1494 (the last in 1504). The councils outlawed religious and non-religious books and initiated their burning, sentenced a number of people to death, sent adherents into exile, and [[excommunicate]]d them. In 1491, Skhariya the Jew was executed in Novgorod by the order of Ivan III. More adherents were executed with Gennady's approval, including [[archimandrite]] Kassian of the Iuriev Monastery (who had allowed a number of adherents to hide there), Nekras Rukavov (they first tore out his tongue and then burnt him at the stake), a [[Pskov]]ian monk Zakhar and others.<ref>E. E. Golubinskii, ''Istoriia Russkoi Tserkvi'' (Moscow: University Typography, 1900), vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582.</ref>
@@ Line 33: / Line 33: @@
 ===Fate===
-Thus several years passed before guides were sent to Ghisolfi, but in the spring of 1496 they reached the mouth of the [[Miyusha]] and [[Taigana]] rivers, where Zacharias was to meet them four weeks after [[Easter]]. It had been arranged that in the event of either party reaching the rendezvous before the other, the first should wait until [[Whitsuntide]], and if need be until [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul|Peter and Paul's Day]]. The guides waited until [[St. Nicholas]]' Day (Dec. 6), when they learned that Ghisolfi was unable to advance on account of disturbances among his people, for "the man Zacharias is substantial, his family is great, and probably it is difficult to induce them to move." In his report to Ivan, the Crimean ambassador declared that, out of friendship for Muscovy, the khan Meñli I Giray would take Ghisolfi under his protection, but expressed concern due to Ghisolfi's having antagonized the Turks, who were the khan's overlords.<ref>ib. pp. 77-114.</ref>
+Thus several years passed before guides were sent to Ghisolfi, but in the spring of 1496 they reached the mouth of the [[Miyusha]] and [[Taigana]] rivers, where Zacharias was to meet them four weeks after [[Easter]]. It had been arranged that in the event of either party reaching the rendezvous before the other, the first should wait until [[Whitsuntide]], and if need be until [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul|Peter and Paul's Day]]. The guides waited until [[St. Nicholas]]' Day (Dec. 6), when they learned that Ghisolfi was unable to advance on account of "disturbances" among his people, for "the man Zacharias is substantial, his family is great, and probably it is difficult to induce them to move." In his report to Ivan, the Crimean ambassador declared that, out of friendship for Muscovy, the khan Meñli I Giray would take Ghisolfi under his protection, but expressed concern due to Ghisolfi's having antagonised the Turks, who were the khan's overlords.<ref>ib. pp. 77-114.</ref>
-From subsequent events, it is evident that Ghisolfi entered the service of the khan, for further negotiations were carried on, and in April 1500, Ivan, instructing his ambassador, refers to Ghisolfi as "Zacharias the Fryazin,"<ref>i.e., "the Italian".</ref> who had lived in [[Circassia]] and is now in the service of [[Meñli I Giray]], but who never reached Russia."<ref>ib. p. 309.</ref>
+By the end of the 15th century, some of the adherents to the Sect of Zacharias remained under the protection of Yelena Stefanovna and her son [[Dmitry Ivanovich (grandson of Ivan III)|tsarevich Dmitry]] (grandson of Ivan III).
 ===Aftermath===
-By the end of the 15th century, some of the adherents remained under the protection of Yelena Stefanovna and her son [[Dmitry Ivanovich (grandson of Ivan III)|tsarevich Dmitry]] (grandson of Ivan III). However, in 1502 Dmitry was stripped of his title (transferred to [[Vasili III]] &ndash; son of Ivan III and [[Sophia Paleologue]]). As soon as Ivan III died in 1505, Yelena and Dmitry were arrested and imprisoned, leaving the adherents vulnerable to attacks from the authorities. In 1504, diak (secretary) Ivan-Volk Kuritsyn, Dmitry Konoplev and Ivan Maksimov were burnt at the stake.<ref>Golubinskii, Ist. Russk. ''Tserk'', vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582</ref> Other adherents were banished, imprisoned, or excommunicated. Feodor Kuritsyn's adherents' club ceased to exist.
+In 1502 Dmitry was stripped of his title (transferred to [[Vasili III]] &ndash; son of Ivan III and [[Sophia Paleologue]]). As soon as Ivan III died in 1505, Yelena and Dmitry were arrested and imprisoned, leaving the adherents vulnerable to attacks from the authorities. In 1504, diak (secretary) Ivan-Volk Kuritsyn, Dmitry Konoplev and Ivan Maksimov were burnt at the stake.<ref>Golubinskii, Ist. Russk. ''Tserk'', vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582</ref> Other adherents were banished, imprisoned, or excommunicated. Feodor Kuritsyn's adherents' club ceased to exist.
 ===Analysis===

@@ Line 13: / Line 13: @@
 Despite the growing popularity of this religious movement in Novgorod and Moscow, Ivan III was wary of the fact that it could irreversibly infiltrate broader masses of ordinary people and deprive him of ecclesiastic support in his foreign policy.  Indeed, a denial of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ would destroy Christianity, while the adherents' opposition to the clergy and the secular authorities would have undermined the entire society. This made Ivan III renounce his ideas of secularization and ally with the clergy.<ref>On Ivan's policies regarding the sect, see George Vernadsky, "The Heresy of the Judaizers and the Policies of Ivan III of Moscow", ''Speculum'', Vol. 8, No. 4 (Oct., 1933): 436-454.</ref>
-== Zacharias de Ghisolfi ==
+=== Zacharias de Ghisolfi ===
 A member of the famous Ghisolfi family, '''Zacharias de Ghisolfi''' was the prince and ruler of the [[Taman peninsula]] from about 1480. Beset by the [[Ottoman Empire]] (which was then in the process of reducing the [[Girai Khanate]] and the [[Italy|Italian]] possessions in the Crimea to tributary status) in 1482, Zacharias and his subjects, a mixed population of [[Jews]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[Greek people|Greeks]], [[Circassians]], [[Tatar]]s and [[Slavs]], were compelled to retire from Matrega and sought refuge on the island of Matrice.  On August 12 of that year, Zacharias informed the directors of the Bank of Saint George in Genoa of his position, and requested for 1,000 [[ducats]] with which to retain the friendship of his allies, the [[Crimean Goths]] of [[Feodoro]], who had exhausted his resources; he stated that unless he received the support of the republic, he would move to [[Wallachia]], where the [[voivode]] had offered him a castle.

@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 ===The Sect of Zacharias Persecuted===
-The struggle against the adherents was led by hegumen [[Joseph Volotsky]] and his followers (иосифляне, ''iosiflyane'' or Josephinians) and [[Gennady (Archbishop of Novgorod)|Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod]].<ref>John I. L. Fennell, ''Ivan the Great of Moscow'' (London: Macmillan, 1961), 329; David M Goldfrank, "Burn, Baby, Burn: Popular Culture and Heresy in Late Medieval Russia", ''The Journal of Popular Culture'' 31, no. 4 (1998): 17–32; Andrei Pliguzov, "Archbishop Gennadii and the Heresy of the 'Judaizers'" ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 16(3/4) December 1992: 269-288.</ref> After uncovering adherents in Novgorod around 1487,<ref>Vernadsky, ''The Heresy of the Judaizers and the Policies of Ivan III'', 439.</ref> Gennady wrote a series of letters to other churchmen over several years calling on them to convene ''sobors'' ("church councils") with the aim "not to debate them, but to burn them."  Such councils were held in 1488, 1490, 1494 and 1504. The councils outlawed religious and non-religious books and initiated their burning, sentenced a number of people to death, sent adherents into exile, and [[excommunicate]]d them. In 1491, Skhariya the Jew was executed in Novgorod by the order of Ivan III. More adherents were executed with Gennady's approval, including [[archimandrite]] Kassian of the Iuriev Monastery (who had allowed a number of adherents to hide there), Nekras Rukavov (they first tore out his tongue and then burnt him at the stake), a [[Pskov]]ian monk Zakhar and others.<ref>E. E. Golubinskii, ''Istoriia Russkoi Tserkvi'' (Moscow: University Typography, 1900), vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582.</ref>
+The struggle against the adherents was led by hegumen [[Joseph Volotsky]] and his followers (иосифляне, ''iosiflyane'' or Josephinians) and [[Gennady (Archbishop of Novgorod)|Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod]].<ref>John I. L. Fennell, ''Ivan the Great of Moscow'' (London: Macmillan, 1961), 329; David M Goldfrank, "Burn, Baby, Burn: Popular Culture and Heresy in Late Medieval Russia", ''The Journal of Popular Culture'' 31, no. 4 (1998): 17–32; Andrei Pliguzov, "Archbishop Gennadii and the Heresy of the 'Judaizers'" ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 16(3/4) December 1992: 269-288.</ref> After uncovering adherents in Novgorod around 1487,<ref>Vernadsky, ''The Heresy of the Judaizers and the Policies of Ivan III'', 439.</ref> Gennady wrote a series of letters to other churchmen over several years calling on them to convene ''sobors'' ("church councils") with the aim "not to debate them, but to burn them."  Such councils were held in 1488, 1490, 1494 (the last in 1504). The councils outlawed religious and non-religious books and initiated their burning, sentenced a number of people to death, sent adherents into exile, and [[excommunicate]]d them. In 1491, Skhariya the Jew was executed in Novgorod by the order of Ivan III. More adherents were executed with Gennady's approval, including [[archimandrite]] Kassian of the Iuriev Monastery (who had allowed a number of adherents to hide there), Nekras Rukavov (they first tore out his tongue and then burnt him at the stake), a [[Pskov]]ian monk Zakhar and others.<ref>E. E. Golubinskii, ''Istoriia Russkoi Tserkvi'' (Moscow: University Typography, 1900), vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582.</ref>
 ===Fate===
-Several years passed before guides were sent to Ghisolfi, but in the spring of 1496 they reached the mouth of the [[Miyusha]] and [[Taigana]] rivers, where Zacharias was to meet them four weeks after [[Easter]]. It had been arranged that in the event of either party reaching the rendezvous before the other, the first should wait until [[Whitsuntide]], and if need be until [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul|Peter and Paul's Day]]. The guides waited until [[St. Nicholas]]' Day (Dec. 6), when they learned that Ghisolfi was unable to advance on account of disturbances among his people, for "the man Zacharias is substantial, his family is great, and probably it is difficult to induce them to move." In his report to Ivan, the Crimean ambassador declared that, out of friendship for Muscovy, the khan Meñli I Giray would take Ghisolfi under his protection, but expressed concern due to Ghisolfi's having antagonized the Turks, who were the khan's overlords.<ref>ib. pp. 77-114.</ref>
+Thus several years passed before guides were sent to Ghisolfi, but in the spring of 1496 they reached the mouth of the [[Miyusha]] and [[Taigana]] rivers, where Zacharias was to meet them four weeks after [[Easter]]. It had been arranged that in the event of either party reaching the rendezvous before the other, the first should wait until [[Whitsuntide]], and if need be until [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul|Peter and Paul's Day]]. The guides waited until [[St. Nicholas]]' Day (Dec. 6), when they learned that Ghisolfi was unable to advance on account of disturbances among his people, for "the man Zacharias is substantial, his family is great, and probably it is difficult to induce them to move." In his report to Ivan, the Crimean ambassador declared that, out of friendship for Muscovy, the khan Meñli I Giray would take Ghisolfi under his protection, but expressed concern due to Ghisolfi's having antagonized the Turks, who were the khan's overlords.<ref>ib. pp. 77-114.</ref>
 From subsequent events, it is evident that Ghisolfi entered the service of the khan, for further negotiations were carried on, and in April 1500, Ivan, instructing his ambassador, refers to Ghisolfi as "Zacharias the Fryazin,"<ref>i.e., "the Italian".</ref> who had lived in [[Circassia]] and is now in the service of [[Meñli I Giray]], but who never reached Russia."<ref>ib. p. 309.</ref>
 ===Analysis===

@@ Line 20: / Line 20: @@
 == Zacharias de Ghisolfi ==
-A descendant of Simeone, '''Zacharias de Ghisolfi''' was the prince and ruler of the [[Taman peninsula]] from about 1480. Beset by the [[Ottoman Empire]] (which was then in the process of reducing the [[Girai Khanate]] and the [[Italy|Italian]] possessions in the Crimea to tributary status) in 1482, Zacharias and his subjects, a mixed population of [[Jews]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[Greek people|Greeks]], [[Circassians]], [[Tatar]]s and [[Slavs]], were compelled to retire from Matrega and sought refuge on the island of Matrice.  On August 12 of that year, Zacharias informed the directors of the Bank of Saint George in Genoa of his position, and requested for 1,000 [[ducats]] with which to retain the friendship of his allies, the [[Crimean Goths]] of [[Feodoro]], who had exhausted his resources; he stated that unless he received the support of the republic, he would move to [[Wallachia]], where the [[voivode]] had offered him a castle.
+A member of the famous Ghisolfi family, '''Zacharias de Ghisolfi''' was the prince and ruler of the [[Taman peninsula]] from about 1480. Beset by the [[Ottoman Empire]] (which was then in the process of reducing the [[Girai Khanate]] and the [[Italy|Italian]] possessions in the Crimea to tributary status) in 1482, Zacharias and his subjects, a mixed population of [[Jews]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[Greek people|Greeks]], [[Circassians]], [[Tatar]]s and [[Slavs]], were compelled to retire from Matrega and sought refuge on the island of Matrice.  On August 12 of that year, Zacharias informed the directors of the Bank of Saint George in Genoa of his position, and requested for 1,000 [[ducats]] with which to retain the friendship of his allies, the [[Crimean Goths]] of [[Feodoro]], who had exhausted his resources; he stated that unless he received the support of the republic, he would move to [[Wallachia]], where the [[voivode]] had offered him a castle.
 ===Contact with Muscovy===

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	By the end of the 15th century, some of the adherents remained under the protection of Yelena Stefanovna and her son [[Dmitry Ivanovich (grandson of Ivan III)\|tsarevich Dmitry]] (grandson of Ivan III). However, in 1502 Dmitry was stripped of his title (transferred to [[Vasili III]] – son of Ivan III and [[Sophia Paleologue]]). As soon as Ivan III died in 1505, Yelena and Dmitry were arrested and imprisoned, leaving the adherents vulnerable to attacks from the authorities. In 1504, diak (secretary) Ivan-Volk Kuritsyn, Dmitry Konoplev and Ivan Maksimov were burnt at the stake.<ref>Golubinskii, Ist. Russk. ''Tserk'', vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582</ref> Other adherents were banished, imprisoned, or excommunicated. Feodor Kuritsyn's adherents' club ceased to exist.		By the end of the 15th century, some of the adherents remained under the protection of Yelena Stefanovna and her son [[Dmitry Ivanovich (grandson of Ivan III)\|tsarevich Dmitry]] (grandson of Ivan III). However, in 1502 Dmitry was stripped of his title (transferred to [[Vasili III]] – son of Ivan III and [[Sophia Paleologue]]). As soon as Ivan III died in 1505, Yelena and Dmitry were arrested and imprisoned, leaving the adherents vulnerable to attacks from the authorities. In 1504, diak (secretary) Ivan-Volk Kuritsyn, Dmitry Konoplev and Ivan Maksimov were burnt at the stake.<ref>Golubinskii, Ist. Russk. ''Tserk'', vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 582</ref> Other adherents were banished, imprisoned, or excommunicated. Feodor Kuritsyn's adherents' club ceased to exist.
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		+	== Zacharias de Ghisolfi ==
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		+	A descendant of Simeone, '''Zacharias de Ghisolfi''' was the prince and ruler of the [[Taman peninsula]] from about 1480. Beset by the [[Ottoman Empire]] (which was then in the process of reducing the [[Girai Khanate]] and the [[Italy\|Italian]] possessions in the Crimea to tributary status) in 1482, Zacharias and his subjects, a mixed population of [[Jews]], [[Italian people\|Italians]], [[Greek people\|Greeks]], [[Circassians]], [[Tatar]]s and [[Slavs]], were compelled to retire from Matrega and sought refuge on the island of Matrice. On August 12 of that year, Zacharias informed the directors of the Bank of Saint George in Genoa of his position, and requested for 1,000 [[ducats]] with which to retain the friendship of his allies, the [[Crimean Goths]] of [[Feodoro]], who had exhausted his resources; he stated that unless he received the support of the republic, he would move to [[Wallachia]], where the [[voivode]] had offered him a castle.
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		+	===Contact with Muscovy===
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		+	Notwithstanding the fact that the Turks had captured [[Tanais\|Tana]] ([[Azov]]) and most of the settlements in [[Gazaria (Genoese colonies)\|Gazaria]], Ghisolfi continued the war from Matrice, but with only a small measure of success. Learning that he had expressed a desire to come to Russia, and glad of an opportunity to ally with the Circassians and other peoples resisting Ottoman incursions, [[Ivan III]] of Muscovy directed Prince Nozdrevaty, his ambassador to the [[Crimean Tatars\|Crimean Tatar]] [[Khan (title)\|khan]] [[Meñli I Giray]], to forward a message "sealed with the gold seal" to Zacharias the Jew, at [[Caffa]]. This message, dated March 14, 1484, and forwarded by Luka and Prince Vasili, both court dignitaries, reads as follows:
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		+	{{quote\|text=By the grace of God the great ruler of the Russian country, the [[Veliki Knyaz\|Grand Duke]] Ivan Vassilivich, [[Czar]] of [[all the Russias]], ... to Skariya the Hebrew. You have written to us through Gabriel Petrov, our guest, that you desire to come to us. It is our wish that you do so. When you are with us we will give you evidence of our favorable disposition toward you. If you wish to serve us, our desire will be to confer distinction upon you; but should you not wish to remain with us and prefer to return to your own country, you shall be free to go ...<ref>Raisin 23, at fn. 12; ''see also'' ''Sbornik Imperatorskavo Ruskavo Istoricheskavo Obschestva,'' xli. 40. For a second message, dated Oct. 18, 1487, see ib. p. 71).</ref>}}
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		+	===Departure for Moscow===
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		+	From a despatch in [[Latin]] from [[Conario]] on the [[Kuban River]], dated June 8, 1487, and signed "Zachariah Guigursis", it is clear that Zacharias, intending to accept Ivan's hospitality, started for Moscow, but while on the way was robbed and tortured by [[Stephen III of Moldavia\|Stefan]], the voivode of [[Moldavia]]; upon his release, he returned home. Notwithstanding this experience, Ghisolfi and his men declared themselves ready to join Ivan provided that guides were furnished them. Replying to this despatch, March 18, 1488, the Muscovite prince repeated his invitation, and informed Ghisolfi that he had notified [[Dmitry Shein]], his ambassador at the Crimean court, that he had requested khan [[Meñli I Giray]] to send to [[Cherkassy]] two men to guide Ghisolfi to Moscow. He directed Shein to add to this number a [[Tatar]] from his own suite.
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		+	===Fate===
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		+	Several years passed before guides were sent, but in the spring of 1496 they reached the mouth of the [[Miyusha]] and [[Taigana]] rivers, where Zacharias was to meet them four weeks after [[Easter]]. It had been arranged that in the event of either party reaching the rendezvous before the other, the first should wait until [[Whitsuntide]], and if need be until [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul\|Peter and Paul's Day]]. The guides waited until [[St. Nicholas]]' Day (Dec. 6), when they learned that Ghisolfi was unable to advance on account of disturbances among his people, for "the man Zacharias is substantial, his family is great, and probably it is difficult to induce them to move." In his report to Ivan, the Crimean ambassador declared that, out of friendship for Muscovy, the khan Meñli I Giray would take Ghisolfi under his protection, but expressed concern due to Ghisolfi's having antagonized the Turks, who were the khan's overlords.<ref>ib. pp. 77-114.</ref>
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		+	From subsequent events, it is evident that Ghisolfi entered the service of the khan, for further negotiations were carried on, and in April 1500, Ivan, instructing his ambassador, refers to Ghisolfi as "Zacharias the Fryazin,"<ref>i.e., "the Italian".</ref> who had lived in [[Circassia]] and is now in the service of [[Meñli I Giray]], but who never reached Russia."<ref>ib. p. 309.</ref>
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		+	===Analysis===
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		+	Ivan's repeated invitations to Ghisolfi seem to indicate that he hoped the latter's services would be valuable to him in extending Russian influence on the [[Black Sea]]. Yet it is strange that during a period of more than eighteen years Ghisolfi did not succeed in reaching Russia. Whether the fact that Ghisolfi was a Jew had anything to do with the impediments put in his way, it is difficult to ascertain, for no mention of him is to be found in Jewish writings. The different spellings of Zachariah's name in [[Italian language\|Italian]] and [[Russian language\|Russian]] documents—"Guizolfi," "Guigursis," and "Guilgursis"—may be attributed to errors of the Russian scribes.

	==19th-century groups==		==19th-century groups==