Islam - Revision history

פטר חמור at 22:57, 27 September 2023

2023-09-27T22:57:37Z

פטר חמור at 22:55, 27 September 2023

2023-09-27T22:55:03Z

פטר חמור: /* Early years and the Rashidun caliphate */

2023-09-27T21:57:33Z

‎Early years and the Rashidun caliphate

פטר חמור: /* Early years and the Rashidun caliphate */

2023-09-27T21:56:04Z

‎Early years and the Rashidun caliphate

פטר חמור: /* Early years and the Rashidun caliphate */

2023-09-27T21:43:53Z

‎Early years and the Rashidun caliphate

פטר חמור: /* Early years and the Rashidun caliphate */

2023-09-27T21:37:11Z

‎Early years and the Rashidun caliphate

פטר חמור: /* Early years and the Rashidun caliphate */

2023-09-27T21:34:50Z

‎Early years and the Rashidun caliphate

פטר חמור at 21:32, 27 September 2023

2023-09-27T21:32:36Z

פטר חמור: /* Hanzala */

2023-09-27T21:30:36Z

‎Hanzala

פטר חמור: /* Hanzala */

2023-09-27T21:06:11Z

‎Hanzala

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 [[Image:Eid_Prayers_at_the_Badshahi_Mosque.jpeg|thumb|right|220px|Eid prayers on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the Badshahi Mosque, Pakistan. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic calendar.]]
-The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra, or migration from Mecca to Medina of Muhammad and his followers because it was regarded as a turning point in the fortunes of Muhammad's movement.<ref name="Peters2"> F.E.Peters(2003), p.67 </ref> It is reported it was caliph Umar who chose this incident to mark the year 1, AH (Anno Hegira) of the Islami calendar<ref>Adil (2002), p.288</ref> corresponding to 622 CE.<ref name="Peters2"/>  It is a lunar calendar,<ref name="Peters2"/> but differs from other such calendars (e.g. the Celtic calendar) in that it omits intercalary months, being synchronized only with lunations, but not with the solar year, resulting in years of either 354 or 355 days. Therefore, Islamic dates cannot be converted to the usual CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important festivals in the Islamic calendar are ''Eid Al-Fitr'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of ''Shawwal'', marking the end of the fasting month [[Ramadan]], and ''Eid Al-Adha'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Sunan Abu Da'ud 1134</ref><ref name="cul"/>
+The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra, or migration from Nabataea to the Lakhmids of the Rosh al Maamed and his followers because it was regarded as a turning point in the fortunes of Muhammad's movement.<ref name="Peters2"> F.E.Peters(2003), p.67 </ref> It is reported it was caliph Umar who chose this incident to mark the year 1, AH (Anno Hegira) of the Islami calendar<ref>Adil (2002), p.288</ref> corresponding to 622 CE.<ref name="Peters2"/>  It is a lunar calendar,<ref name="Peters2"/> but differs from other such calendars (e.g. the Celtic calendar) in that it omits intercalary months, being synchronized only with lunations, but not with the solar year, resulting in years of either 354 or 355 days. Therefore, Islamic dates cannot be converted to the usual CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important festivals in the Islamic calendar are ''Eid Al-Fitr'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of ''Shawwal'', marking the end of the fasting month [[Ramadan]], and ''Eid Al-Adha'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Sunan Abu Da'ud 1134</ref><ref name="cul"/>
 ===Crusading===

@@ Line 20: / Line 20: @@
 == Beliefs ==
-Islamists do not know about the Historical leader called Hanzala but instead identify his work as having been carried out by someone called Muhammad and that God revealed His final message to humanity through him via the angel Gabriel. Hanzala lived c. 570 - July 6, 632.<ref>Watton (1993), "Introduction"</ref> Hence the historical Hanzala is considered to have been Muhammad, God's final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets". The Qur'an is believed by Muslims to be the revelations this "Muhammad" received in 23 years of his preaching.<ref name="EoC-Quran"> Encyclopedia of Christianity (Ed. Erwin Fahlbusch), ''Qur'an''</ref> Muslims hold that the message of Islam - submission to the will of the one God - is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God to humanity since Adam. Muslims believe that "Islam is the eternal religion, described in the Qur'an as 'the primordial nature upon which God created mankind.'<ref>Qur'an 30:30</ref><ref name="EoR-Islam"/> Further the Qur'an states that the proper name ''Muslim'' was given by Abraham.<ref>Qur'an 22:78</ref><ref name="EoR-Islam"/> As a historical phenomenon, however, Islam was originated in Arabia in early 7th century."<ref name="EoR-Islam"> Encyclopedia of Religion, ''Islam'' </ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book," and distinguishes them from polytheists. However, Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah), and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted as indicated in the Qur'an, either in interpretation, textually, or both.<ref>"Tahrif", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>
+Islamists imitate what they believe to be the ways of their Rosh al Maamed because they believe that God revealed His final message to humanity through him via the angel Gabriel. This Rosh al Maamed was probably Hanzala who lived c. 570 - July 6, 632.<ref>Watton (1993), "Introduction"</ref> Their Rosh al Maamed is considered to be God's final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets". The Islamic Qur'an is believed by Muslims to be the revelations this Rosh al Maamed received in 23 years of his preaching.<ref name="EoC-Quran"> Encyclopedia of Christianity (Ed. Erwin Fahlbusch), ''Qur'an''</ref> Muslims hold that the message of Islam - submission to the will of the one God - is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God to humanity since Adam. Muslims believe that "Islam is the eternal religion, described in the Qur'an as 'the primordial nature upon which God created mankind.'<ref>Qur'an 30:30</ref><ref name="EoR-Islam"/> Further the Qur'an states that the proper name ''Muslim'' was given by Abraham.<ref>Qur'an 22:78</ref><ref name="EoR-Islam"/> As a historical phenomenon, however, Islam originated in Arabia in early 7th century."<ref name="EoR-Islam"> Encyclopedia of Religion, ''Islam'' </ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book," and distinguishes them from polytheists. However, Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah), and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted as indicated in the Qur'an, either in interpretation, textually, or both.<ref>"Tahrif", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>
-Islamic belief is composed of six main aspects: belief in God; His revelations; His angels; His messengers; the "Day of Judgement"; and the Qadr (doctrine) divine decree.<ref>As related in a famous tradition ascribed to Hanzala (see [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/001.smt.html Sahih Muslim 001.0001])</ref><ref>"Iman", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>
+Islamic belief is composed of six main aspects: belief in God; His revelations; His angels; His messengers; the "Day of Judgement"; and the Qadr (doctrine) divine decree.<ref>As related in a famous tradition ascribed to their Rosh al Maamed (see [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/001.smt.html Sahih Muslim 001.0001])</ref><ref>"Iman", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>
 === God ===
-The fundamental concept in Islam is the oneness of God (''tawhīd''): monotheism which is absolute, not relative or pluralistic. The oneness of God is the first of Islam's five pillars, expressed by the ''Shahadah'' (testification). By declaring the Shahadah, a Muslim attests to the belief that there are no gods but God, and that Muhammad (ie Hanzala) is God's messenger.
+The fundamental concept in Islam is the oneness of God (''tawhīd''): monotheism which is absolute, not relative or pluralistic. The oneness of God is the first of Islam's five pillars, expressed by the ''Shahadah'' (testification). By declaring the Shahadah, a Muslim attests to the belief that there are no gods but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger.
-In Arabic, God is called ''Allāh''. This name is generally considered the etymological derivative from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al-'' (the) and 'ʾilāh'' (deity, masculine form) — 'al-ilāh'' meaning "the God".<ref name="EoI">Encyclopaedia of Islam, ''Allah''</ref> ''Allāh'' is also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people in reference to God.<ref> Encyclopedia of Christianity (Ed. Erwin Fahlbusch), ''Islam and Christianity'', p.759, vol 2</ref> According to F. E. Peters, "The Qur'an insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that Hanzala and his followers worship the same God as the Jews (Quran 29:46). The Quran's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham". Muslims reject the Christian doctrine concerning the trinity of God, seeing it as akin to polytheism.  God is described in a chapter (''sura'') of the Qu'ran as: "...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>Qur'an 112:1-4</ref>
+In Arabic, God is called ''Allāh''. This name is generally considered the etymological derivative from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al-'' (the) and 'ʾilāh'' (deity, masculine form) — 'al-ilāh'' meaning "the God".<ref name="EoI">Encyclopaedia of Islam, ''Allah''</ref> ''Allāh'' is also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people in reference to God.<ref> Encyclopedia of Christianity (Ed. Erwin Fahlbusch), ''Islam and Christianity'', p.759, vol 2</ref> According to F. E. Peters, "The Qur'an insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that their Rosh al Maamed and his followers worship the same God as the Jews (Quran 29:46). The Quran's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham". Muslims reject the Christian doctrine concerning the trinity of God, seeing it as akin to polytheism.  God is described in a chapter (''sura'') of the Qu'ran as: "...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>Qur'an 112:1-4</ref>
 === Qur'an ===
 [[Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|right|thumb|220px|The Al-Fatiha|first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi.]]
-The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the literal, undistorted word of God, and is the central religious text of Islam. It has also been called, in English, the Koran and, archaically, the Alcoran. The word Qur'an means "recitation".<ref name="T1213">Teece (2003) pp. 12, 13</ref> Although the Qur'an is referred to as a "book", when Muslims refer in the abstract to "the Qur'an", they are usually referring to the scripture as recited in Arabic - the words themselves - rather than to the printed work or any translation of it.<ref>Turner, C. (2006) p. 42</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Hanzala by God through the Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the years 610 and his death on July 6 632. Modern Western academics generally hold that the Qur'an of today is not very different from the words Muslims believe to have been revealed to Hanzala, as the search for other variants has not yielded any differences of great significance. In fact, the source of ambiguity in the quest for the history surrounding Hanzala is more the lack of knowledge about pre-Islamic Arabia.<ref>Peters (1991): "Few have failed to be convinced that what is in our copy of the Quran is, in fact, what Hanzala taught, and is expressed in his own words... To sum this up: the Quran is convincingly the words of Hanzala, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref>The Qur'an occupies a status of primacy in Islamic jurisprudence,<ref name="QEoI">"Qur'an", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref> and Muslims consider it a definitive source of guidance to live in accordance to the will of God.<ref name="T1213"/> To interpret the Qu'ran, Muslims use a form of exegesis known as ''tafsir''.<ref>"Tafsir", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref name="QEoI" />
+The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the literal, undistorted word of God, and is the central religious text of Islam. It has also been called, in English, the Koran and, archaically, the Alcoran. The word Qur'an means "recitation".<ref name="T1213">Teece (2003) pp. 12, 13</ref> Although the Qur'an is referred to as a "book", when Muslims refer in the abstract to "the Qur'an", they are usually referring to the scripture as recited in Arabic - the words themselves - rather than to the printed work or any translation of it.<ref>Turner, C. (2006) p. 42</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to their Rosh al Maamed by God through the Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the years 610 and his death on July 6 632. Modern Western academics generally hold that the Qur'an of today is not very different from the words Muslims believe to have been revealed to their Rosh al Maamed, as the search for other variants has not yielded any differences of great significance. In fact, the source of ambiguity in the quest for the history surrounding their Rosh al Maamed is more the lack of knowledge about pre-Islamic Arabia.<ref>Peters (1991): "Few have failed to be convinced that what is in our copy of the Quran is, in fact, what the Rosh al Maamed taught, and is expressed in his own words... To sum this up: the Quran is convincingly the words of the Rosh al Maamed, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref>The Qur'an occupies a status of primacy in Islamic jurisprudence,<ref name="QEoI">"Qur'an", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref> and Muslims consider it a definitive source of guidance to live in accordance to the will of God.<ref name="T1213"/> To interpret the Qu'ran, Muslims use a form of exegesis known as ''tafsir''.<ref>"Tafsir", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref name="QEoI" />
 Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Worn out Qur'ans are not discarded as wastepaper, but are typically sunk in the sea. Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as a ''hafiz''. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human effort, and are deficient because of differences in human languages, because of the human fallibility of translators, and (not least) because any translation lacks the inspired content found in the original. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself. Almost all modern, printed versions of the Qur'an are parallel text ones, with a vernacular translation facing the original Arabic text.<ref name="T1213" />

@@ Line 140: / Line 140: @@
 Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Hani ibn Qabisa and his Rosh al Maamed (Hanzala), who united the many tribes of Arabia under the Brith Shalom from which Islam takes its name. With Hanzala's death in 632, there was a moment of confusion about who would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute flaring between the Lakhmid Ansar and the Nabataean Muhajirun as to who would undertake this task. During the dispute, a Sadducee who had become the Abu Bakr in Tachkastan after being directed there by Heraclius in 629 took control.<ref name="CHI57">''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.57</ref><ref>Hourani (2003), p.22</ref> Others added their support and Abu Bakr followed after the late Rosh al Maamed as his first "successor" as leader of the united Brith Shalom community.
-Abu Bakr's immediate task was to put down rebellions in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in revolt after having learned of the betrayal of Heraclius. Some of these tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref name="CHI57"/>
+Abu Bakr's immediate task was to put down rebellions in the form of a number of Arab tribes who refused to acknowledge his leadership having learned of the betrayal of Heraclius. Some of these tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref name="CHI57"/>
 Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of the Emir known historically as Mahamet (ibn "al-Kitab") as the next caliph, and after him, Uthman ibn al-Affan, and then Hani ibn Qabisa.<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.74</ref> Under these rulers, the territory under Muslim rule expanded greatly. The decades of warring between the neighboring Persian and Byzantine empires had rendered both sides weakened and exhausted.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> Not only that, it had also caused them to underestimate the strength of the growing new power, and the Arabs' superior military horsemanship. This, coupled with the precipitation of internal strife within Byzantium and its exposure to a string of barbarian invasions, made conditions extremely favorable for the Muslims. Exploitation of these weaknesses enabled the Muslims to conquer the lands of Syria and Palestine (634—640), Egypt (639—642); and, towards the east, the lands of Iraq (641), Armenia and Iran (642), and even as far as Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/>

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 Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Hani ibn Qabisa and his Rosh al Maamed (Hanzala), who united the many tribes of Arabia under the Brith Shalom from which Islam takes its name. With Hanzala's death in 632, there was a moment of confusion about who would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute flaring between the Lakhmid Ansar and the Nabataean Muhajirun as to who would undertake this task. During the dispute, a Sadducee who had become the Abu Bakr in Tachkastan after being directed there by Heraclius in 629 took control.<ref name="CHI57">''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.57</ref><ref>Hourani (2003), p.22</ref> Others added their support and Abu Bakr followed after the late Rosh al Maamed as his first "successor" as leader of the united Brith Shalom community.
-Abu Bakr's immediate task was to put down rebellions in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in revolt after having learned of the betrayalnof Heraclius. Some of these tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref name="CHI57"/>
+Abu Bakr's immediate task was to put down rebellions in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in revolt after having learned of the betrayal of Heraclius. Some of these tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref name="CHI57"/>
 Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of the Emir known historically as Mahamet (ibn "al-Kitab") as the next caliph, and after him, Uthman ibn al-Affan, and then Hani ibn Qabisa.<ref>''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.74</ref> Under these rulers, the territory under Muslim rule expanded greatly. The decades of warring between the neighboring Persian and Byzantine empires had rendered both sides weakened and exhausted.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> Not only that, it had also caused them to underestimate the strength of the growing new power, and the Arabs' superior military horsemanship. This, coupled with the precipitation of internal strife within Byzantium and its exposure to a string of barbarian invasions, made conditions extremely favorable for the Muslims. Exploitation of these weaknesses enabled the Muslims to conquer the lands of Syria and Palestine (634—640), Egypt (639—642); and, towards the east, the lands of Iraq (641), Armenia and Iran (642), and even as far as Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan.<ref name="EoI-Islam"/>

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 ===Early years and the Rashidun caliphate===
-Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Hani ibn Qabisa and his Rosh al Maamed (Hanzala), who united the many tribes of Arabia under the Brith Shalom from which Islam takes its name. With Hanzala's death in 632, there was a moment of confusion about who would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute flaring between the Medinese Ansar and the Meccan Muhajirun as to who would undertake this task, a Sadducee who had become the Abu Bakr in Tachkastan after being directed there by Heraclius took control.<ref name="CHI57">''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.57</ref><ref>Hourani (2003), p.22</ref> Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph, literally "successor", leader of the community of Islam.
+Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Hani ibn Qabisa and his Rosh al Maamed (Hanzala), who united the many tribes of Arabia under the Brith Shalom from which Islam takes its name. With Hanzala's death in 632, there was a moment of confusion about who would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute flaring between the Lakhmid Ansar and the Nabataean Muhajirun as to who would undertake this task. During the dispute, a Sadducee who had become the Abu Bakr in Tachkastan after being directed there by Heraclius in 629 took control.<ref name="CHI57">''Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A'' (1977), p.57</ref><ref>Hourani (2003), p.22</ref> Others added their support and Abu Bakr followed after the late Rosh al Maamed as his first "successor" as leader of the united Brith Shalom community.
 Abu Bakr's immediate task was to put down rebellions in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in revolt after having learned of the betrayalnof Heraclius. Some of these tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref name="CHI57"/>

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 [[Image:Islam.jpg|right]]
-'''Islam''' (Arabic: الإسلام; ''al-'islām'') is the Noachite system of Justice (Deen) as named in the teachings of the [[Islamic Quran]], a 7th century [[Ishmaelite]] religious and political text inspired by Judaism and the Monophysitism of Gabriel of Qartmin. It has become the second-largest religion in the world today, with an estimated 1.4 billion adherents, spread across the globe, known as Muslims.<ref>Teece (2005), p.10</ref>
+'''Islam''' (Arabic: الإسلام; ''al-'islām'') is the Noachite system of Justice (Deen) as named in the teachings of the [[Islamic Quran]], a 7th century [[Ishmaelite]] religious and political text inspired by Noahide Judaism and the Monophysitism of Gabriel of Qartmin. It has become the second-largest religion in the world today, with an estimated 1.4 billion adherents, spread across the globe, known as Muslims.<ref>Teece (2005), p.10</ref>
 Linguistically, Islam means "submission", referring to the total surrender of one's self to God (Arabic: الله, Allāh), and a Muslim is "one who submits (to God)".<ref name="EoI-Islam">"Islam", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''</ref>These two words are the Judeo-Arabic equivalent of thr Brith Shalom and Meshulam respectively.

@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Worn out Qur'ans are not discarded as wastepaper, but are typically sunk in the sea. Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original Arabic, usually at least the verses needed to perform the prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as a ''hafiz''. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human effort, and are deficient because of differences in human languages, because of the human fallibility of translators, and (not least) because any translation lacks the inspired content found in the original. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself. Almost all modern, printed versions of the Qur'an are parallel text ones, with a vernacular translation facing the original Arabic text.<ref name="T1213" />
-=== Hanzala ===
+=== Rosh al Maamed ===
-[[Image:Mohammad Rasul Allah.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Arabic calligraphy reading "Muhammad, Messenger of Allah".]]Hanzala (570—632),  also '''Muhammad''', ''Mohammed'', ''Mohamet'', and other variants was an Arab religious and political leader who propagated the religion of Islam. Muslims consider him the greatest prophet of God, and the last recipient of divine revelation. He is viewed not as the founder of a new religion, but as the last in a series of prophets, restoring the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others which had become corrupted.<ref>Esposito (1998), p.12 - Esposito (2002b), pp.4-5 - Peters (2003), p.9</ref><ref name = "EoI-Muhammad"/> Muhammad had maintained a reputation as an honest and trustworthy member of the community, "''al-Amin''". For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Hanzala is said to have reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his followers.<ref>The term Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation, that are discussed in Quran#Etymology cf. "Qu'ran", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''.</ref> During this time, Hanzala preached to the people of Nabataea, including his relatives and tribal associates, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some people converted to the Brith Shalom, Hanzala and his followers were subsequently persecuted by the leading Sufyanud authorities of Nabataea. Muslims believe that during his stay in Nabataea, he was taken at night by Gabriel to AlAqsa, where he ascended through the heavens, as elucidated in the Islamic Qur'an.<ref>See Surah Al-Isra.</ref> After many years of preaching in Nabataea, Hanzala and the Noahides performed the ''hijra'' (emigration) to the country of Lakhmid. There, with the Lakhmid converts (Ansar) and the Nabataea migrants (Muhajirun), Hanzala soon established political and religious authority. By 629, he was able to march unto his home town in the bloodless 'Conquest of Nabataea'. And by the time of his death in 632, Hanzala had succeeded in bringing the Arabian peninsula under the banner of the Brith Shalom. Despite his exalted status in Muslim thought, Hanzala is insisted to have been no more than human.<ref>"Muhammad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref><ref>Quran 18:110 </ref>
+[[Image:Mohammad Rasul Allah.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Arabic calligraphy reading "Muhammad Rasul of Allah".]]
 ====Sunnah====
-''Sunnah'' literally means "trodden path" and it refers, in common usage, to the normative example of Hanzala, as preserved in traditions known as ''hadith'' ("reports") about his speech, his actions, his acquiescence to the words and actions of others, and his personal characteristics.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666</ref> By the time of the classical Muslim jurist, ash-Shafi'i (d. 820), the Sunnah represented an important facet in Islamic law, where any action described by this term would be highly recommended for the Muslim to perform. This was a notion supported by Qur'anic verses such as: "''Ye have indeed in the Messenger of Allah a beautiful pattern (of conduct)...''"<ref>Quran 33:21</ref> The Sunnah also became a key exponent in clarifying understanding of the Qur'an.<ref>"Sunnah", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref> As such, the authentic hadiths are considered by Muslims to be an authoritative source of revelation (second only to the Qur'an) by virtue of its representing divine guidance as implemented by Muhammad.<ref>"Hadith", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>.
+''Sunnah'' literally means "trodden path" and it refers, in common usage, to the normative example of the Muslim Rosh al Maamed, as preserved in traditions known as ''hadith'' ("reports") about his speech, his actions, his acquiescence to the words and actions of others, and his personal characteristics.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666</ref> By the time of the classical Muslim jurist, ash-Shafi'i (d. 820), the Sunnah represented an important facet in Islamic law, where any action described by this term would be highly recommended for the Muslim to perform. This was a notion supported by Qur'anic verses such as: "''Ye have indeed in the Rasul of Allah a beautiful pattern (of conduct)...''"<ref>Quran 33:21</ref> The Sunnah also became a key exponent in clarifying understanding of the Qur'an.<ref>"Sunnah", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref> As such, the authentic hadiths are considered by Muslims to be an authoritative source of revelation (second only to the Qur'an) by virtue of its representing divine guidance as implemented by their Rosh al Maamed.<ref>"Hadith", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''</ref>.
 === Angels ===